Treaty of London and Italy's Entrance into World War I Introduction As Italy worked itself through the hard decades between 1870 and 1900, it gradually built its domestic infrastructure. The suffrage was repeatedly broadened. The development of hydro-electricity on a large scale gave new impetus to industrial development in the north. Giolitti’s policies of meeting the just demands of labor half-way, seemed to presage social stability. New wealth and a thriving urban culture supported a remarkable flowering of literature, opera, and theater, which DiScala describes. In the north, Italy shared with the rest Europe most of the attributes of the “Belle Epoque”; in many ways, Italy’s future seemed bright. At the same time there were problems, among the landless peasants, the “bracianti,” in the north and especially among the peasantry in the south. The ever-increasing stream of emigration testified that fundamental problems in the south had not been resolved. The Twentieth Century, then brought both promise and problems to Italy. It also brought new intellectual currents. One was a rejection of “mechanistic” view of life, as exemplified by contemporary science and Darwinism. Another was a rejection of the placid, stable existence symbolized by the comfortable bourgeois and contemporary parliamentary life. Such critics of society included the German Friederich Nietsche, the Frenchman Georges Sorel, the Russian Fedor Dostoyevsky. In Italy they were echoed by poets like Gabriele D’Annunzio and Futurists like Filippo Marinetti. What united these disparate voices was dissatisfaction with complacency and the elevation of the individual over the masses. The result has often been called a neo-romanticism or a new irrationalism in society. In Italy it meant a rejection of the status quo and the search for novelty, excitement, and action. The Futurist Manifesto, which Marinetti wrote in what must have been a fevered state, captures the dissatisfaction with the old and the striving for action which was a major facet of this period. Italy had joined Germany and Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance in 1882. Under the terms of this agreement, each country was supposed to support the others if attacked by Russia or France; the alliance was renewed every five years. However, Italy concluded a secret agreement with France in 1902. When Germany and Austria-Hungary went to war in 1914, Italy reneged on its Triple Alliance commitments, claiming that the other two had behaved aggressively and that the terms of the Triple Alliance did not apply.
The Intervention of Italy, 1915 On the plea that the Austrian action against Serbia was an offensive action and therefore incompatible with the terms of the Triple Alliance, the Italian government in July 1914 refused to join the Central powers and declared neutrality (Aug. 3). But almost from the outset the Italian government maintained that under Art. VII of the Triple Alliance, Italy was entitled to some compensation to counterbalance the Austrian gains in the Balkans. These claims were advanced the more persistently when the foreign ministry was given to Baron Sidney Sonnino (Nov. 3), following the sudden demise of Marquis Antonio di San Giuliano (Oct. 16).
1914, Dec. 20: Prince Bernhard von Bülow, former German chancellor, arrived in Rome on a special mission. He admitted the Italian claim to the Trentino, and the German government made every effort to persuade the Austrians to give in (mission of Count Betho von Wedel to Vienna, Jan. 16, 1915). 1915, Jan. 13: Count Stephen Burian appointed Austro-Hungarian foreign minister to replace Berchtold. Burian finally agreed to the cession of territory (March 9) but was willing to cede the Trentino only after the conclusion of peace. This was not enough to satisfy the Italians, who were already negotiating with the Entente powers. Sonnino demanded of Austria the immediate cession of the South Tyrol, the district of Gorizia and Gradisca, the establishment of Trieste and its neighborhood as a free state, the cession to Italy of the Curzolari Islands off the Dalmation coast, and full sovereignty over the island of Saseno and over Valona on the Albanian coast (Italian occupation of Saseno, Oct. 30, 1914; “provisional” occupation of Valona, Dec. 26, 1914). These demands were exorbitant, from the Austrian point of view, but the Germans finally (May 10) induced their allies to agree to substantially all the Italians were holding out for. As it turned out, the Austrians yielded too late. 1915 April 26: Britain, France, Russia, and Italy concluded the secret Treaty of London. Antonio Salandra, the Italian prime minister, had envisaged Italian intervention on the Entente side almost since the beginning of war, but the noninterventionists, led by Giovanni Giolitti, were too strong to make that at first a practicable policy. During the winter, however, the interventionist movement gathered strength (Mussolini broke with the Socialist Party and became an active proponent of intervention). The western powers, meeting with failure on the western front, were ready to offer much. Negotiations were embarked upon in Feb. 1915 but were delayed by the opposition of the Russian foreign minister, Sazonov, to the assignment of the Dalmatian coast to Italy, in view of Serbian aspirations in that region. Under the terms of the treaty as finally concluded, a military convention was to be drawn up to protect Italy against the full force of Austrian attack. The political clauses promised Italy the South Tyrol and Trentino, Gorizia, Gradisca, Trieste, Istria, the most important Dalmatian Islands and the southern part of the province of Dalmatia, Saseno and Valona, and full sovereignty over the Dodecanese Islands (occupied since 1912). Moreover, in the event of the partition of Turkey, Italy was to have the province of Adalia; and in the event of Britain and France enlarging their empires by the addition of German colonies, Italy was to receive extensions of its territory in Libya, Eritrea, and Somaliland. Italy was further to receive a loan, and ultimately part of the war indemnity. The Entente powers were to support Italy in preventing the Holy See from taking diplomatic steps for the conclusion of peace. Italy was to commence hostilities within a month of the signature of the treaty. The Treaty of London In August 1914 the First World War broke out. And that changed everything in Europe, forever. All told, it constituted a major revolution. Although the initial cause was the incompatibility of Serbian nationalism with the multi-national Austro-Hungarian Empire, the treaty systems which had involved all of the major powers broadened the conflict. Italy might have joined in, too, but argued that her treaty obligations did not oblige her to fight. The relief of the general population that Italy had remained neutral was disguised by the Futurists and extreme nationalists. They constituted a vocal and visible minority pushing for war. The leaders of the state, Prime Minister Antonio Salandra, Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino, and Victor Emanuel III, meanwhile plunged into negotiations with both sides. Them, this was a unique opportunity to complete Italian unification by incorporating Trento and Trieste, both held by Austria. The Entente powers were far more willing, of course, to concede them this territory than Austria. |
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The Treaty of London, also known as the London Pact (Patto di Londra, in Italian), was negotiated secretly by three major Allied Powers - France, Russia, and Great Britain - with Italy. By 1915, they were keen to bring neutral Italy into World War One on their side. Italy however drove a hard bargain. Representatives of the Italian government agreed to enter the war in return for financial help and the granting of land currently under the control of Austria-Hungary. Thus, the Treaty of London resulted in Britain granting an immediate loan of £50 million and a promise to support Italy's extensive territorial demands after the war. The concessions once the war had been won, included Trent, Southern Tyrol, Istria, Gorizia and Dalmatia. Despite the Allies' eventual agreement, the terms of the secret treaty were to cause problems at the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. Since the Italian territorial demands included the Yugo-Slavic lands under Austria-Hungary, the negotiations had to involve also the future borders of two cobelligerant Allied states, the kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro. However, the territorial promises to the latter were fairly precise only along the areas assigned to Italy. Thus, the Kingdom of Serbia was promised Split (Spalato, in Italian), the coast and islands south of Krka to Dubrovnik (Ragusa), and peninsula Peljesac (Sabbioncello). The Kingdom of Montenegro was assigned Dubrovnik, and the coast south to the Albanian port San Giovanni di Medua. Also, but less precisely, Serbia was promised Bosnia-Herzegovina, Srem, Backa, Slavonia (this one against the Italian objections), and some unspecified areas of Albania (to be divided between Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece). The Italians insisted, and the Allies agreed, that the question of the Croatian coast between Zadar (Zara) and Istra (Istria) should be settled after the war. They also insisted that Serbia should not be informed about the agreements. This, however, the Allies overruled by sending to the Government of Serbia an official Note, dated August 4, 1915, confirming the postwar territorial claims of Serbia and Montenegro.
At the Paris Peace Conference, the Italians insisted that they will negotiate only with their wartime allies Serbia and Montenegro, not with defeated enemies included in delegation of the new state of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In particular they were incensed that three members of the delegation were former Austro-Hungarian deputies (Croats Ante Trumbic, Josip Smodlaka, and the Slovene Otokar Ribarz), and that one (the Slovene Ivan Zolger) had served as Minister in the wartime Austrian Cabinet. But the Italians finally gave in, primarily under the pressure of the then US President Woodrow Wilson. [Rene Albrecht-Carrie, Italy at the Paris Peace Conference. 1966 and Ivo J. Lederer, Yugoslavia at the Paris Peace Conference. 1963] Ultimately Italy was granted Trentino, Trieste, (the German-speaking) South Tyrol, and Istria. But Dalmatia was excluded, as was Fiume; so, too, were any colonial territories in Africa or Asia and any claim on Albania. Nationalists consequently argued that Italy had been robbed of its rightful gains.
As with the other major nations she was prompt in using wartime poster propaganda to generate fervent support for Italy's stance: and of course as a means of encouraging military volunteers. Pictured on the right is a postcard from that period. Extracts from The Treaty of London: ARTICLE 1. A military convention shall be immediately concluded between the General Staffs of France, Great Britain, Italy, and Russia. This convention shall settle the minimum number of military forces to be employed by Russia against Austria-Hungary in order to prevent that Power from concentrating all its strength against Italy, in the event of Russia deciding to direct her principal effort against Germany.... ARTICLE 2. On her part, Italy undertakes to use her entire resources for the purpose of waging war jointly with France, Great Britain, and Russia against all their enemies. ARTICLE 3. The French and British fleets shall render active and permanent assistance to Italy.... ARTICLE 4. Under the Treaty of Peace, Italy shall obtain the Trentino, Cisalpine Tyrol with its geographical and natural frontier, as well as Trieste, the counties of Gorizia and Gradisca, all Istria as far as the Quarnero and including Volosca and the Istrian islands of Cherso and Lussin, as well as the small islands of Plavnik, Unie, Canidole, Palazzuoli, San Pietro di Nembi, Asinello, Gruica, and the neighbouring islets.... ARTICLE 5. Italy shall also be given the province of Dalmatia within its present administrative boundaries.... ARTICLE 6. Italy shall receive full sovereignty over Valona, the island of Saseno and surrounding territory.... ARTICLE 7. Should Italy obtain the Trentino and Istria in accordance with the provisions of Article 4, together with Dalmatia and the Adriatic islands within the limits specified in Article 5, and the Bay of Valona (Article 6), and if the central portion of Albania is reserved for the establishment of a small autonomous neutralised State, Italy shall not oppose the division of Northern and Southern Albania between Montenegro, Serbia, and Greece.... ARTICLE 8. Italy shall receive entire sovereignty over the Dodecanese Islands which she is at present occupying. ARTICLE 9. Generally speaking, France, Great Britain, and Russia recognise that,... in the event of total or partial partition of Turkey in Asia, she ought to obtain a just share of the Mediterranean region adjacent to the province of Adalia.... ARTICLE 11. Italy shall receive a share of any eventual war indemnity corresponding to their efforts and her sacrifices. ARTICLE 13. In the event of France and Great Britain increasing their colonial territories in Africa at the expense of Germany, those two Powers agree in principle that Italy may claim some equitable compensation.... ARTICLE 14. Great Britain undertakes to facilitate the immediate conclusion, under equitable conditions, of a loan of at least 50,000,000 pounds.... ARTICLE 16. The present arrangement shall be held secret. On May 3, 1915, the Italian government denounced the Triple Alliance. A week later, there was conclusion of a naval convention among Britain, France, and Italy. On May 23, Italy mobilized and declared war on Austria-Hungary on the side of the Allies, hoping to gain territory at Austria-Hungary's expense. Germany at once severed diplomatic relations (May 24), but for various financial reasons Italy did not declare war on Germany until Aug. 28, 1916. Italy's World War I statistics Entered War: 23 May 1915 (declared war on Austria-Hungary) Political system: Constitutional monarchy since emerging as an independent unified kingdom in the 1860s Leader: Victor Emmanuel III: sovereign,
1900-1947 Population: 34.7 million (1911) Army: 300,000 men (1912). In 1915, the Italian army consisted of 875,000 men in 25 infantry divisions and four cavalry divisions. A total of 5.2 million Italians were mobilised for army service during the war. Navy: 5 dreadnoughts, 8 pre-dreadnought battleships, 21 cruisers, 49 destroyers, 85 torpedo boats, 25 submarines (1915) Recent Diplomacy: Italy joined Germany and Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance in 1882. Under the terms of this agreement, each country was supposed to support the others if attacked by Russia or France; the alliance was renewed every five years. However, Italy concluded a secret agreement with France in 1902. When Germany and Austria-Hungary went to war in 1914, Italy reneged on its Triple Alliance commitments, claiming that the other two had behaved aggressively and that the terms of the Triple Alliance did not apply. With Prime Minister Salandra claiming Italy's Sacro Egoismo (sacred self-interest), the country joined the war in 1915 on the side of the Allies. It hoped to gain territory at Austria-Hungary's expense. Casualties by 1918: 650,000 dead, 959,000 wounded Sources:
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Created: Saturday, October
25, 2003; Last updated:Wednesday April 20, 2022
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The
Treaty of London was signed on April 26, 1915. Having signed this treaty
with Britain and France, Italy cast its lot with those powers. Italy
began the Great War on August 2, 1914 as a declared neutral. Her
inclinations lay with the Allies however and in due course she declared
her hand against the Central Powers on 23 May 1915, but only on
Austria-Hungary [